Oil spillage And Gas Flaring In Niger Delta Region
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction.
1.1 Overview
Nigeria has Africa’s largest reserves of oil and gas within its borders and most of these resources exist in the Niger Delta and on the continental shelf of the country. Oil extraction in the Niger Delta has been going on since the 1950s and Nigeria exports around 15 million tonnes of oil every day, ranking one of the top 15 exporters in 2009 (CIA 2012). The reserve of crude oil in Nigeria is estimated to be 270 billion tonnes, making it one of the top 10 largest reserves in the world in 2011 (CIA 2012). Oil exports accounts for 95 % of the foreign exchange earnings and 80 % of the budgetary revenues. The quality of the extracted oil is considered good, as it has low content of sulfur (0.14%) and a high content of lighter fractions (EIR 2005).
The Niger River has a total length of about 4100 km and is the third longest river in Africa. The Niger River basin covers a drainage area of 2.3 million km2, about 7.5 % of the African continental landmass. The river starts in the Guinea Highlands and flows through Mali and Niger on its way to Nigeria. The average annual discharge from the Niger River into the Gulf of Guinea is 177 km3 by (Frenken, 1997). The Delta stretches from the Benin River in the west to the Bonny River in the east. It is a vast flood plain built up by the accumulated sediments washed down the Niger and Benue Rivers. The mangrove and freshwater swamp forest of the Niger Delta is the largest in Africa, and the third largest in the world, covering some 70 000 km2. However, in many places, the forests have been extensively logged and agriculture has encroached into the wetland by (Moffat and Linden 1995; Mmom and Arokoyu 2010). Most of the lowland rainforest that used to characterize the areas landward from the swamp forests are now derived Savannah or agricultural land with only small areas of more or less degraded coastal rainforest left. The high rainfall and river discharge during the rainy season combined with the low, flat terrain, and poorly drained soils cause frequent and widespread flooding and erosion. Often over 80 % of the delta is affected by seasonal floods stretching from the Benin River in the west to Bonny River in the east (Moffat and Linden1995). The tidal range at Port Harcourt is on average 1.8 m.
1.2 Problem Statement
a) Oil Spill in Nigeria Oil Spill Incidents in Nigeria have occurred in various parts and at different times along our coast. Some major spills in the coastal zone are the GOCON’s Escravos spill in 1978 of about 300,000 barrels, SPDC’s Forcados Terminal tank failure in 1978 of about580,000 barrels and Texaco Funiwa-5 blow out in 1980 of about 400,000 barrels. Other oil spill incidents are those of the Abudu pipe line in 1982 of about 18,818 barrels, The Jesse Fire Incident which claimed about a thousand lives and the Idoho Oil Spill of January 1998, of about 40,000 barrels. The most publicized of all oil spills in Nigeria occurred on January 17 1980 when a total of 37.0 million litres of crude oil got spilled into the environment. This spill occurred as a result of a blow out at Funiwa 5 offshore station. Nigeria's largest spill was an offshore well-blow out in January 1980 when an estimated 200,000 barrels of oil (8.4million US gallons) spilled into the Atlantic Ocean from an oil industry facility and that damaged 340 hectares of mangrove (Nwilo and Badejo, 2005).
According to the Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR), between 1976 and 1996 a total of 4647 incidents resulted in the spill of approximately 2,369,470 barrels of oil into the environment. Of this quantity, an estimated 1,820,410.5 barrels (77%) were lost to the environment. A total of 549,060 barrels of oil representing 23.17% of the total oil spilt into the environment was recovered. The heaviest recorded spill so far occurred in 1979 and 1980 with a net volume of 694,117.13 barrels and 600,511.02 barrels respectively. Available records for the period of 1976 to 1996 indicate that approximately 6%, 25%, and 69% respectively, of total oil spilled in the Niger Delta area, were in land, swamp and offshore environments. Also, between 1997 and 2001, Nigeria recorded a total number of 2,097 oil spill incidents. Thousands of barrels of oil have been spilled into the environment through our oil pipelines and tanks in the country. This spillage is as a result of our lack of regular maintenance of the pipelines and storage tanks, Sabotage is another major cause of oil spillage in the country, Pirates are stealing Nigeria's crude oil at a phenomenal rate, funneling nearly 300,000 barrels per day from our oil and selling it illegally on the international trade market. Nigeria lost about N7.7 billion in 2002 as a result of vandalization of pipelines carrying petroleum products. The amount, according to the PPMC, a subsidiary of NNPC, represents the estimated value of the products lost in the process. Illegal fuel siphoning as a result of the thriving black market for fuel products has increased the number of oil pipeline explosions in recent years. In July 2000, a pipeline explosion outside the city of Warri caused the death of 250 people. An explosion in Lagos in December 2000 killed at least 60 people. The NNPC reported 800 cases of pipeline vandalization from January through October 2000. In January 2001, Nigeria lost about $4 billion in oil revenues in 2000 due to the activities of vandals on our oil installations. The government estimates that as much as 300,000 bbl/d of Nigerian crude is illegally bunkered (freighted) out of the country. In Nigeria, fifty percent (50%) of oil spills is due to corrosion, twenty eight percent (28%) to sabotage and twenty one percent (21%) to oil production operations. One percent (1%) of oil spills is due to engineering drills, inability to effectively control oil wells
1.3 Objectives of Study
The objectives of this study are: - a) to find the causes of oil spill and gas flaring in Nigerian . b) To investigate and examine the impact and consequence of this spill in the environment.
Oil contamination originating from anthropogenic activities such as drilling operations and transportation is a well-known and well-studied environmental pollution problem. However, due to their visibility and dramatic appearance, oil spills still attract the attention of the media and consequently the public and politicians, as in the case of the Deep-water Horizon blowout in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010. However, the oil spills occurring in the Niger Delta have received less attention in global media, despite significantly higher impacts on human health and the local ecology by (UNEP 2011), Oil spills have occurred repeatedly for decades in the Niger Delta and large parts of the land and wetlands are chronically affected by oil spills. Due to the influence of the tides and at times floods in connection with rains, spilt oil is rapidly distributed over large areas and re-mobilized with rising tides. The oil originates from leaking pipelines, wellheads, and flow stations; from spills in connection with transport of mostly stolen oil; from illegal tapping of the wells; and from artisanal refining under very primitive conditions.
Chapter 2
Causes Of Oil Spillage
Oil spills are a common event in Nigeria. Half of all spills occur due to pipeline and tanker accidents (50%), other causes include sabotage (28%) and oil production operations (21%), with 1% of the spills being accounted for by inadequate or non-functional production equipment. Corrosion of pipelines and tankers is the rupturing or leaking of old production infrastructures that often do not receive inspection and maintenance..
2.1 Sabotage of oil production and theft
Some of the citizens of this country in collaboration with people from other countries engage in oil bunkering. They damage and destroy oil pipelines in their effort to steal oil from them. SPDC claimed in 1996 that sabotage accounted for more than 60 percent of all oil spilled at its facilities in Nigeria, stating that the percentage has increased over the years both because the number of sabotage incidents has increased and because spills due to corrosion have decreased with programs to replace oil pipelines (SPDC, 1996)
Sabotage and theft through oil siphoning has become a major issue in the Niger Delta states as well, contributing to further environmental degradation. Damaged lines may go unnoticed for days, and repair of the damaged pipes takes even longer. Oil siphoning has become a big business, with the stolen oil quickly making its way onto the black market. While the popularity of selling stolen oil increases, the number of deaths are increasing. In late December 2006 more than 200 people were killed in the Lagos region of Nigeria in an oil line explosion.
2.1.1 Illegal Refinery.
Illegal refiners steals oil from oil companies at the point of transporting of the crude from one point to another. This dangerous process is often carried out at night with the complicity of the oil companies' control-room staff that turn a blind eye to a drop in the pressure of its pipelines. The crude oil thieves usually separate out the products with the highest economic value (after using the same basic distillation technological process used in legitimate refining) and simply dump the remainder into the environment – which has severe environmental and ecological impact.
The bulk of petroleum product produced at illegal refineries in the Niger Delta is diesel – 41 per cent; and waste, 55 per cent. Petrol, kerosene, and bitumen are produced in very small quantities. Many refiners also give their host communities small quantities of kerosene for lighting and cooking at no charge.
Other than complicity, corruption and ineffectual policing, the reason illegal refining still happens is down to pure economics. The thieves make money because the raw material is free (stolen crude). The cost of production is low, and the demand for the products at the price it is sold is high. There has been talk of the legalization of these refineries.
The bulk of petroleum product produced at illegal refineries in the Niger Delta is diesel – 41 per cent; and waste, 55 per cent. Petrol, kerosene, and bitumen are produced in very small quantities. Many refiners also give their host communities small quantities of kerosene for lighting and cooking at no charge.
Other than complicity, corruption and ineffectual policing, the reason illegal refining still happens is down to pure economics. The thieves make money because the raw material is free (stolen crude). The cost of production is low, and the demand for the products at the price it is sold is high. There has been talk of the legalization of these refineries.
2.1.2 Oil Bunkering.
Oil theft, also known as illegal bunkering, is the act of hacking into pipelines to steal crude which is later refined or sold abroad by (Ugwuanyi, 2013). Sabotage is performed primarily through what is known as "bunkering", whereby the saboteur attempts to tap the pipeline. In the process of extraction sometimes the pipeline is damaged or destroyed. Oil extracted in this manner can often be sold. It is an illicit trade that involves the theft of crude oil and its derivative products through a variety of mechanisms. By ( Asuni, 2009) refers to oil theft as oil taken from pipelines or flow stations, as well as extra crude oil added to legitimate cargo that is not accounted for. In support of the above positions, Obasi (2011) asserts that “illegal oil bunkering” as used in Nigeria is a generic term encompassing not only unauthorized loading of ships but also all acts involving the theft, diversion and smuggling of oil”. by (Ikelegbe, 2005) noted that: ‘There is a large scale illegal local and international trading on crude oil. This has grown from a few amateurs in the 1980s who utilized crude methods to extract crude from pipelines to a very sophisticated industry which uses advanced technologies to tap crude and sophisticated communications equipment to navigate through the maze of hundreds of creeks, rivers and rivulets.
The oil theft syndicates have also graduated from boats and barges to ships and large oil tankers in the high seas. The stealing and smuggling of crude has become very extensive and large scale since the late 1990s’’. The import of the foregoing is that crude oil theft is any activity relating to the theft or sabotage of crude oil, facilities or installations in form of illegal bunkering, pipeline vandalism, fuel scooping, illegal refining, etc. Illegal oil bunkering is the most commonly known form of oil theft and it involves direct tapping of oil. Though oil bunkering is a necessity for maritime shipping within the maritime sector, it becomes an illegal oil bunkering when it is carried out without requisite statutory licenses or valid documents, or in violation of the Nigerian maritime sector.
Some of the reason account for this act include poverty, ignorance, greed, lack of respect for national economic survival, get rich syndrome, lack of gainful employment, exploiting the loopholes in the criminal justice system to circumvent the law, evolving culture of impunity from the wrong perception that some people are above the law, weak institutional structure to checkmate criminals, malice and bad governance (corruption, incompetency), just to mention a few, by (Igbuku, 2014) also identified some of the underlying causes of this scourge to include poverty, community-industry expectation mismatch, corruption, unemployment, ineffective law enforcement and poor governance. He adds that high unemployment, for instance has created a huge population of idle young people who are easily lured to oil related crimes. These crimes in turn are reinforced in the absence of clear deterrent measures, arising from the non-prosecution of alleged perpetrator. In the same vein, (Mernyi ,2014) stated that: ‘Some experts in the oil sector are in consensus that the persistence upsurge of illegal bunkering in the Niger Delta is due to high levels of youth unemployment, armed ethnic militia, ineffective and corrupt law enforcement agencies and other state actors who are often part of an international syndicate. They argued that oil theft and pipeline vandalism continued to thrive in Nigeria in spite of government’s efforts because of some vested interest of powerful persons involved in the business and the lack of political will to deal with it. They believed that the Nigerian leaders especially the political class is benefiting from illegal oil bunkering hence lack political will to confront it. They further argued that if the leaders are not benefiting directly or indirectly, they must have come up with measures or legislation to stop the menace’’ As noted by Brock (2012), due to years of neglect, marginalization and underdevelopment of the Niger Delta by the Federal Government and the Multinational Oil Companies (MNCs) operating in the region, rings of organizes criminal groups, called “oil bunkerers” in our local parlance, has evolved in the creeks and along our territorial waters, who specializes in stealing, illegal refining and transporting of Nigeria’s crude oil to the international black market. Similarly Vidal (2013) stated that some Niger Delta communities freely admit their role in the theft of oil but blame continuing poverty and pollution for their actions. “The government and oil companies are collecting our oil and we don’t have jobs or money so we have to collect the oil and refine our own”, says a man in the village of Bolo near where an illegal refinery was set up. Apparently, due to joblessness and poverty, the Niger Delta youth see illegal oil bunkering as a legitimate. the reason illegal refining still happens is down to pure economics. The thieves make money because the raw material is free (stolen crude). The cost of production is low, and the demand for the products at the price it is sold is high. There has been talk of the legalisation of these refineries.
2.2 Pipeline and tanker accidents.
2.2.1 Corrosion
A reason corrosion accounts for such a high percentage of all spills is that as a result of the small size of the oilfields in the Niger Delta, there is an extensive network of pipelines between the fields, as well as numerous small networks of flow-lines, the narrow diameter pipes that carry oil from wellheads to flow stations , allowing many opportunities for leaks. In onshore areas most pipelines and flow lines are laid above ground. Pipelines, which have an estimate life span of about fifteen years, are old and susceptible to corrosion. Many of the pipelines are as old as twenty to twenty-five years. Shell admits that "most of the facilities were constructed between the 1960s and early 1980s to the then prevailing standards. SPDC [Shell Petroleum and Development Company] would not build them that way today.
2.2.2 Human factors error
Other research obtained also shows that must marine tankers accident in Nigeria is as a result of human factor errors and this human error has greatly led to the negative effects, the tanker accidents have posed in the coastal environment (Bayelsa and Rivers State) in Nigeria the tanker accidents caused by human error range from poor maintenance and carelessness, to negligence and sometimes lack of experience in one way or the other both on the part of the operators/seafarers on one side and also on the part of the shore-based management team on the other side. Others include lack of effective safety management system between the ship and the shore and lack of adequate motivation for the seafarers.
2.2.3 Lack of maintenance
(Corrosion of pipelines and tankers is the rupturing or leaking of old production infrastructures that often do not receive inspection and maintenance low funding. Some of these facilities have been in use for decades without replacement. About 40,000 barrels of oil spilled into the environment through the offshore pipeline.
Chapter 3
Gas Flaring
3.1 Causes of gas flaring
Gas flaring is one of the cheapest way by which must oil firm has adopt to separate unwanted gas substance mixed with crude oil, the ongoing conflict in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria has overlapping ethnic, economic and environmental causes, including environmental concerns arising from the activities of the oil industry. The ongoing practice of gas flaring, in which the natural gas associated with petroleum extraction is burned off in the atmosphere rather than being removed by alternative means such as subterranean re-injection or confinement to storage tanks for eventual sale, is particularly controversial. Gas flaring is often performed for economic reasons, as alternative disposal methods are more costly than the immediate elimination of the gas, which is a less profitable and potentially hazardous byproduct of the industry. Gas flaring introduces toxic pollutants such as sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere, which can lead to environmental problems such as acid rain, as well as the generation of greenhouse gases which contribute to global climate change (Obanijesu et al. 20091, Osuji and Avwiri 20052). When the burning of natural gas occurs in close proximity to wildlife or inhabited areas, the effects raise potential environmental and health concerns.
Chapter 4
4.1 Consequences
Oil spillage has a major impact on the ecosystem into which it is released and may constitute ecocide. Immense tracts of the mangrove forests, which are especially susceptible to oil (mainly because it is stored in the soil and re-released annually during inundations), have been destroyed. An estimated 5 to 10% of Nigerian mangrove ecosystems have been wiped out either by settlement[clarification needed] or oil. The rainforest which previously occupied some 7,400 km² of land has disappeared as well.
Spills in populated areas often spread out over a wide area, destroying crops and aquacultures through contamination of the groundwater and soils. The consumption of dissolved oxygen by bacteria feeding on the spilled hydrocarbons also contributes to the death of fish. In agricultural communities, often a year's supply of food can be destroyed instantaneously. Because of the careless nature of oil operations in the Delta, the environment is growing increasingly uninhabitable. People in the affected areas complain about health issues including breathing problems and skin lesions; many have lost basic human rights such as health, access to food, clean water, and an ability to work.
Acid precipitation phenomenon in the Nigeria’s Niger Delta region has raised environmental, economic, biodiversity and public health concerns over the past years. The negative environmental problem such as rapid corrosion of 
corrugated iron roofs (galvanized iron sheet) witnessed in the oil–producing communities in the Niger Delta have been linked to acid rain in some studies. In a study, Ekpoh and Obia demonstrated that acid rain causes rapid corrosion of zinc roofs in the in the three experimental sites that were located near pollution sources such as gas flare station or sea aerosols in the Niger Delta relative to the controlled site that was located far away from pollution sources. Further, building degradation have been attributed to the major pollutants such as SO2, NO2 and PM10 that may have caused the observed impacts (corrosion of roof tops, colouration of walls, leakage of roof tops, etc.) due to their toxic properties. Although the impacts of gas flaring on built environment are limited, there are several consequences associated with flaring and venting of petroleum–associated gas during petroleum resources exploitation and production. Further, acid rain in the oil–producing host communities in the Niger Delta can also contribute to the microclimate degradation, poor soil fertility and agricultural yield.
corrugated iron roofs (galvanized iron sheet) witnessed in the oil–producing communities in the Niger Delta have been linked to acid rain in some studies. In a study, Ekpoh and Obia demonstrated that acid rain causes rapid corrosion of zinc roofs in the in the three experimental sites that were located near pollution sources such as gas flare station or sea aerosols in the Niger Delta relative to the controlled site that was located far away from pollution sources. Further, building degradation have been attributed to the major pollutants such as SO2, NO2 and PM10 that may have caused the observed impacts (corrosion of roof tops, colouration of walls, leakage of roof tops, etc.) due to their toxic properties. Although the impacts of gas flaring on built environment are limited, there are several consequences associated with flaring and venting of petroleum–associated gas during petroleum resources exploitation and production. Further, acid rain in the oil–producing host communities in the Niger Delta can also contribute to the microclimate degradation, poor soil fertility and agricultural yield.
Fig 1. Smoke rises as an illegal oil refinery burns after a military chase in a winding creek near river Nun in Nigeria's oil state of Bayelsa, on December 6, 2012. Thousands of people in Nigeria engage in a practice known locally as "oil bunkering" - hacking into pipelines to steal crude then refining it or selling it abroad. The practice, which leaves oil spewing from pipelines for miles around, managed to lift around a fifth of Nigeria's two million barrel a day production last year according to the finance ministry
Fig 2.Ebiowei, 48, carries an empty oil container on his head to a place where it would be filled with refined fuel at an illegal refinery site near river Nun in Bayelsa State, on November 27, 2012. Locals in the industry say workers can earn $50 to $60 a day
Fig 3. An oil pipeline belonging to oil company Agip spews oil after a leak in the Kalaba community in Bayelsa State, on November 26, 2012
Fig 4. Men work at an illegal oil refinery site near river Nun in Bayelsa State, on November 27, 2012.
Fig 5. A man collects polluted water at an illegal oil refinery site near river Nun in Bayelsa State, on November 27, 2012.
Conclusion.
Most of the reason that is responsible for the current rise in oil Tanker accidents in Nigeria has been revealed. The various findings also revealed that majority of the Marine oil tanker accidents in Nigeria are widely caused due to human error. The increase of oil theft and illegal bunkering in the Niger Delta region is an economic crime against Nigerian state; it undermines development strategies and engenders social disorder. It constitutes serious economic, security and environmental challenges to the Nigerian state. The upsurge oil theft has resulted in economic losses by the Nigerian state and oil companies, environmental degradation, insecurity in the Niger Delta region and threat to national and regional security.
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